Karika 4: The three sources of knowledge
The words
Translation
The valid sources of knowledge are accepted to be threefold: direct perception, inference and authoritative testimony. These [three] are considered sufficient because all other recognised sources of knowledge [according to Indian Philosophy, namely comparison, postulation, non-apprehension, historical tradition and necessary inclusion] are established within the three. It is through these valid sources of knowledge that any object of inquiry can be validated.
The three sources of knowledge
Perception is definite cognition by a sense and reaches the objects of the senses; inference goes from a sign to what bears it and reaches what lies beyond the senses; testimony is the word of a reliable person and reaches what even inference cannot (karikas 5 and 6).
Gold: what karika 4 adds; a gold outline marks what it speaks of. Tap any box to see what the karikas say about it.